Keywords
real-world loneliness
social connectedness
digital transformation
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Olivia Rütti-Joy, Arvid Nagel, Felix Kruse, Amina Kadic, Horst Biedermann
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Abstract
Social networking platforms, digital communication media, and computer games have become central to adolescents’ leisure activities and everyday interactions. These developments may substantially affect both relationship quality and well-being. Yet, existing research offers mixed findings: digitalization has been linked to both heightened loneliness and enhanced social connectedness. For example, frequent internet use is often with heightened experience of loneliness, while digitally mediated relational practices may also foster a greater sense of belonging. Against this backdrop, the present study seeks to advance the current understanding by psychometrically validating two scales that capture real-world and virtual loneliness among Swiss students and by examining their relationship to social connectedness. The analysis draws on data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS). Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to assess factorial validity, comparing a three-factor model (virtual loneliness, real-world loneliness, social connectedness) with alternative specifications (a two-factor model and a general-factor model). Discriminant validity was further tested, and associations with social connectedness were modeled. Results show that while virtual and real-world loneliness are correlated, they represent distinct constructs that can be clearly differentiated both conceptually and empirically. Moreover, findings indicate an inverse relationship between both forms of loneliness and the strength of social connectedness.
References
Ali, Fayaz, Qingyu Zhang, Muhammad Zubair Tauni, und Khuram Shahzad. 2024. «Social Chatbot: My Friend in My Distress». International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 40 (7): 1702 – 1712. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2150745.
Amichai-Hamburger, Yair, und Zack Hayat. 2011. «The impact of the Internet on the social lives of users: A representative sample from 13 countries». Computers in Human Behavior, Nr. 27, 585 – 89.
Amichai-Hamburger, Yair, Mila Kingsbury, und Barry H. Schneider. 2013. «Friendship: An old concept with a new meaning?» Computers in Human Behavior, Including Special Section Youth, Internet, and Wellbeing, 29 (1): 33 – 39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.025.
Anderson, Monica, und Jingjing Jiang. 2018. «Teens, Social Media and Technology 2018». Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech (blog). 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-technology-2018/.
Biedermann, Horst, Arvid Nagel, und Fritz Oser. 2018. «Beschimpfen, Gerüchteverbreitung und Verunglimpfung im virtuellen Raum: Messmodell zu Einstellungen gegenüber Cybermobbing bei Schülerinnen und Schülern». Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Bildungswissenschaften 40 (2): 427 – 46.
Chen, Fang Fang. 2007. «Sensitivity of Goodness of Fit Indexes to Lack of Measurement Invariance». Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 14 (3): 464 – 504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834.
Cheung, Gordon W., und Roger B. Rensvold. 2002. «Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance». Structural Equation Modeling 9 (2): 233 – 55. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.
De Grove, Frederik. 2014. «Youth, Friendship, and Gaming: A Network Perspective». Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 17 (9): 603 – 8. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0088.
De Jong Gierveld, Jenny, und Theo van Tilburg. 1999. «Manual of the Loneliness Scale». Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. https://osf.io/u6gck/.
De Jong Gierveld, Jenny, und Theo van Tilburg. 2006. «A 6-Item Scale for Overall, Emotional, and Social Loneliness: Confirmatory Tests on Survey Data». Research on Aging 28 (5): 582 – 98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027506289723.
De Jong Gierveld, Jenny, und Theo van Tilburg. 2010. «The De Jong Gierveld Short Scales for Emotional and Social Loneliness: Tested on Data from 7 Countries in the UN Generations and Gender Surveys». European Journal of Ageing 7 (2): 121 – 30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-010-0144-6.
Deremetz, Anne. 2021. «Einsamkeit ›trotz‹ oder ›durch‹ Digitalisierung? Eine soziologische Betrachtung». Internationales Zentrum für Ethik in den Wissenschaften (IZEW). Tübingen: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen. https://uni-tuebingen.de/forschung/zentren-und-institute/internationales-zentrum-fuer-ethik-in-den-wissenschaften/publikationen/blog-bedenkzeiten-alt/weitere-blog-artikel/einsamkeit-und-digitalisierung/.
Deremetz, Anne. 2022. «Einsamkeitsforschung und Digitalisierung: Gibt es eine digitale Einsamkeit?» In 10 Minuten Soziologie: Digitalisierung, herausgegeben von Katharina Block, Anne Deremetz, Anna Henkel, und Malte Rehbein. Bielefeld: transcript.
Dumas, Tara M., Paul F. Tremblay, Wendy Ellis, Grace Millett, und Matthew A. Maxwell-Smith. 2023. «Does pressure to gain social media attention have consequences for adolescents’ friendship closeness and mental health? A longitudinal examination of within-person cross-lagged relations». Computers in Human Behavior 140 (März):107591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107591.
Ehrenreich, Samuel E., Kurt J. Beron, Kaitlyn Burnell, Diana J. Meter, und Marion K. Underwood. 2020. «How Adolescents Use Text Messaging Through Their High School Years». Journal of Research on Adolescence 30 (2): 521 – 40. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12541.
Eklund, Lina, und Sara Roman. 2019. «Digital Gaming and Young People’s Friendships: A Mixed Methods Study of Time Use and Gaming in School». YOUNG 27 (1): 32 – 47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1103308818754990.
Elbing, Eberhard. 1991. Einsamkeit. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
George, Darren, und Paul Mallery. 2003. SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update. 4. Aufl. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Grygiel, Paweł, Grzegorz Humenny, und Sławomir Rębisz. 2019. «Using the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale With Early Adolescents: Factor Structure, Reliability, Stability, and External Validity». Assessment 26 (2): 151 – 65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116682298.
Hampton, Keith Neil, und Barry Wellman. 2001. «Long distance community in the network society: Contact and support beyond Netville». American Behavioral Scientist, Nr. 45, 476 – 95.
Hillert, Sophia, Silke Naab, und Andreas Hillert. 2023. «Einsamkeit bei Jugendlichen vor dem Hintergrund der COVID-19-Pandemie: Ein Risikofaktor: Aktuelle Konzepte, Ergebnisse und Perspektiven [Loneliness in adolescents against the background of the COVID-19 pandemic: A risk factor]». Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 51 (2): 139 – 51. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000889.
Hu, Li‐tze, und Peter M. Bentler. 1999. «Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives». Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 6 (1): 1 – 55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Irmer, Andrea, und Florian Schmiedek. 2023. «Associations between Youth’s Daily Social Media Use and Well-Being Are Mediated by Upward Comparisons». Communications Psychology 1 (1): 1 – 13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-023-00013-0.
James, Carrie, Katie Davis, Linda Charmaraman, Sara Konrath, Petr Slovak, Emily Weinstein, und Lana Yarosh. 2017. «Digital Life and Youth Well-being, Social Connectedness, Empathy, and Narcissism». Pediatrics 140 (2): 71 – 75. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758F.
Kline, Rex B. 2011. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 3. Aufl. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Krammer, Ina, Beate Schrank, Isabella Pollak, Katharina A. M. Stiehl, Urs M. Nater, und Kate A. Woodcock. 2023. «Early adolescents’ perspectives on factors that facilitate and hinder friendship development with peers at the time of school transition». Journal of School Psychology 98 (Juni): 113 – 32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2023.03.001.
Lenhart, Amanda. 2015. «Teens, Social Media & Technology Overview 2015». Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech (blog). 2015. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/04/09/teens-social-media-technology-2015/.
Lenhart, Amanda, Monica Anderson, und Aaron Smith. 2019. «Teens, Technology and Romantic Relationships». Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech (blog). 2019. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/10/01/teens-technology-and-romantic-relationships/.
Lenhart, Amanda, und Mary Madden. 2007. «Social Networking Websites and Teens». Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech (blog). 2007. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2007/01/07/social-networking-websites-and-teens/.
Leung, Louis, und Paul S. N. Lee. 2005. «Multiple Determinants of Life Quality: The Roles of Internet Activities, Use of New Media, Social Support, and Leisure Activities». Telematics and Informatics 22 (3): 161 – 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2004.04.003.
Levine, Diane T., und Dov J. Stekel. 2016. «So why have you added me? Adolescent girls’ technology-mediated attachments and relationships». Computers in Human Behavior 63 (Oktober): 25 – 34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.011.
Luhmann, Maike. 2022. «Definitionen und Formen der Einsamkeit». Kompetenznetz Einsamkeit (KNE) Expertise. Bochum: Ruhr-Universität Bochum. https://kompetenznetz-einsamkeit.de/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/KNE_Expertise01_220607.pdf.
Marsh, Herbert W., Zhonglin Wen, und Kit-Tai Hau. 2004. «Structural Equation Models of Latent Interactions: Evaluation of Alternative Estimation Strategies and Indicator Construction». Psychological Methods 9 (3): 275 – 300.
Masur, Philipp K. 2021. «Digital Communication Effects on Loneliness and Life Satisfaction». In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.1129.
Nesi, Jacqueline, Sophia Choukas-Bradley, und Mitchell J. Prinstein. 2018. «Transformation of Adolescent Peer Relations in the Social Media Context: Part 1-A Theoretical Framework and Application to Dyadic Peer Relationships». Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 21 (3): 267 – 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-018-0261-x.
Perlman, Daniel, und Letitia Anne Peplau. 1981. «Toward a social psychology of loneliness». In Personal relationships: 3. Relationships in disorder, herausgegeben von Robin Gilmour und Steve Duck, 31 – 56. London: Academic Press.
R Core Team. 2022. «R: A Language and environment for statistical computing». Vienna. https://cran.r-project.org.
Rosseel, Yves. 2012. «Lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling». Journal of Statistical Software 48 (Mai):1 – 36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02.
Rubin, Kenneth H., William M. Bukowski, und Julie C. Bowker. 2015. «Children in Peer Groups». In Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, herausgegeben von Richard M. Lerner, 1 – 48. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy405.
Samochowiec, Jakub, und Johannes C. Bauer. 2023. In guter Gesellschaft. Die grosse Schweizer Freundschaftsstudie. Rüschlikon: GDI Gottlieb Duttweiler Institute. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4612388.
Schütz, Raphael, und Ludwig Bilz. 2023. «Einsamkeit im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Zur Verbreitung eines Risikofaktors für die psychische Gesundheit unter 11- bis 15-jährigen deutschen Schülerinnen und Schülern». Bundesgesundheitsblatt – Gesundheitsforschung – Gesundheitsschutz 66 (7): 794 – 802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-023-03728-x.
Shen, Cuihua, und Dmitri Williams. 2011. «Unpacking time online: Connecting Internet and massively multiplayer online game use with psychosocial well-being». Communication Research 38 (1): 123 – 49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210377196.
Smith, Douglas, Trinity Leonis, und S. Anandavalli. 2021. «Belonging and loneliness in cyberspace: impacts of social media on adolescents’ well-being». Australian Journal of Psychology 73 (1): 12 – 23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2021.1898914.
Steele, Ric G., Jeffrey A. Hall, und Jennifer L. Christofferson. 2020. «Conceptualizing Digital Stress in Adolescents and Young Adults: Toward the Development of an Empirically Based Model». Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 23 (1): 15 – 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00300-5.
Subrahmanyam, Kaveri, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, und Guadalupe Espinoza. 2008. «Online and offline social networks: Use of social networking sites by emerging adults». Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, Social Networking on the Internet, 29 (6): 420 – 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.07.003.
Tienda, Marta, Rachel E. Goldberg, und Jay R. Westreich. 2022. «Adolescents’ Partner Search in the Digital Age: Correlates and Characteristics of Relationships Initiated Online». Journal of Youth and Adolescence 51 (3): 393 – 408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01557-2.
Twenge, Jean M., Jonathan Haidt, Andrew B. Blake, Cooper McAllister, Hannah Lemon, und Astrid Le Roy. 2021. «Worldwide increases in adolescent loneliness». Journal of Adolescence 93 (December): 257 – 69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.06.006.
Valkenburg, Patti M., und Jochen Peter. 2011. «Online communication among adolescents: An integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks». Journal of Adolescent Health, Nr. 48, 121 – 27.
Van Baarsen, Berna, Tom A. B. Snijders, Johannes H. Smit, und Marijtje A. J. van Duijn. 2001. «Lonely but Not Alone: Emotional Isolation and Social Isolation as Two Distinct Dimensions of Loneliness in Older People». Educational and Psychological Measurement 61 (1): 119 – 35. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131640121971103.
Vorderer, Peter, Dorothée Hefner, Leonard Reinecke, und Christoph Klimmt. 2017. Permanently online, permanently connected: Living and communicating in a POPC world. New York: Routledge.
Waechter, Natalia. 2006. «Chat rooms and girls’ empowerment». In Youth activism: An international encyclopedia, herausgegeben von Lonnie R. Sherrod, Constance A. Flanagan, Ron Kassimir, und Amy K. Syvertsen, 1: 109−113. Westport, CT/London: Greenwood Press.
Weber-Guskar, Eva. 2021. «How to Feel about Emotionalized Artificial Intelligence? When Robot Pets, Holograms, and Chatbots Become Affective Partners». Ethics and Information Technology 23 (4): 601 – 610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-021-09598-8.
Weiss, Robert S. 1973. Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Williams, Dmitri. 2006. «Groups and Goblins: The Social and Civic Impact of an Online Game». Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 50: 651 – 670. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem5004_5.